Introduction
The word “zombie” has been used for centuries to refer to those who continue to live on after they have perished in the real world. Some regions in the Caribbean, like Haiti and Martinique, have their own descriptions and beliefs on what a zombie is and how their citizens have interacted with them. The novel, Texaco, written by Patrick Chamoiseau, provides many examples of zombies similar to these beliefs created by the Caribbean inhabitants. This article provides the history of the word “zombie”, the meaning behind the appearances of these undead throughout Texaco, and how the two intertwine.
The History, Meaning, and Translations of Zombie
Some of the first and earliest uses of the word zombie can be traced back to the late seventeenth century, and its usage arose much more frequently in the nineteenth century in both French pop culture and print culture (Rath 151). Many of these prints sought to discover the origin and meaning of the word zombie and what it originated from. For instance, journalist Lafcadio Hearn in his novel Martinique Sketches, published in 1890, traced back to old Creole language and provided a literary analysis on the word “zombi”. He translates this word to have similar meanings to that of “ghost,” “phantom,” or “revenant” (Kuiken 134-135).
In Hearn’s research, he explains that in the Caribbean, specifically the island of Martinique, that these zombies, or ghosts, endlessly haunt the island’s landscape with their presence. Furthermore, journalist Vesna Kuiken adds on to these findings that, “‘ghosts,’ are more visible in Martinique than elsewhere because of “favorable and atmospheric conditions” which she goes on to explain as “the violence of light” and “the luxuriance of color” of the island (135). The zombies that the people in Martinique see most likely exhibit a cloudy form or haze around their figure. It would set them apart from the lavish flora of the Caribbean. Chamoiseau provides readers with some plants native to the Caribbean in Texaco. He mentions “Caracas roses”, which are intense red flowers that grow in thick clusters, and “Guyane lilies”, which are bright white flowers that float on top of ponds and lakes (Chamoiseau 106). These intense and vibrant depictions of Martinique’s landscape, flowers, and atmosphere provide great details on how these spirits’ ominous forms make them stand out from their environment. Adding to the unsettledness of the zombies of Martinique, they are also described as having a lack of “senses, language, and reason” (132). The absence of these characteristics furthermore distinguishes them from living beings and drives them deeper into the uncanny valley.
As a way of preventing the dead from rising and the souls of the dead losing their humanity, the Haitian’s utilized “magic” and burial techniques to prevent the revival of these zombies. This magic, known as Vodou, is a very important part of the Haitian’s culture and beliefs. It is useful in ensuring that the dead remain at peace and are not forced to roam on the Earth. The Haitians referred to these roaming dead as “zombi” like the Martinicans; however, their beliefs slightly differ. They believe that a zombi is a reanimated corpse of those who were not given a proper burial (Yeates 525). This precaution did not completely prevent a corpse from being resurrected as a zombie because in order to keep the dead at peace after burial, the Haitians would sew the corpse’s mouth shut so they could not respond to its name being called out, for responding to one’s name after death would result in that person resurrecting as a zombie (525). Those who have been resurrected are said to have their minds extinguished; their eyes turn glassy; their face becomes blank and throat broken (525). After being resurrected from the dead in physical form, these zombies lose their sense of reality and overall humanity, essentially becoming an empty shell of a human being. In many ways, these zombies can be seen as enslaved to the earth, for they are cursed to never rest and forever roam. Yeates explains this well in his article when he says, “The zombi figure is thus representative of the figure of the slave: it is bound to its master, forced to work in inhumane conditions and prevented from autonomous movement and thought: in essence, divorced from what makes it human and alive” (Yeates 527). It seems, based on the abundance of information on zombies, that many of the people who were slaves in Haiti remain enslaved even after death because they may not have received a proper burial to fully put their bodies to rest, and Chamoiseau provides examples that involve Vodou and the creation of zombies in Texaco.
Zombies in Texaco
There are many instances of zombies in the novel Texaco. For example, Marie-Sophie explains that Ninon planted some “plants which perfume, which feed, which heal, and which knock out all kinds of zombies” (Chamoiseau 131). Not only does this excerpt reference the warding off of zombies, whether they be spiritual or reanimated corpses, but it also provides insight to how the people of Martinique or Haiti tried to keep the living dead away from their homes. It is fascinating to discover that Ninon used Vodou to ward off spirits from their land. It is also worth noting that while these spirits are driven off, these plants also make them stand out more because the natural beauty of the Caribbean’s flora is so distinctly different from the dullness of the undead.
The use of Vodou to communicate with spirits or ward them off is important for characters in Texaco because even encountering a zombie can cause a person to inadvertently become one themselves. For instance, in later passages, Marie-Sophie provides a detailed description of an encounter Esternome has with a zombie. She says, “He had kept the sweet primordial image of Ninon. Now, there was only some sort of fishwife oozing out of Saint-Pierre, undulating toward him” (Chamoiseau 155). This is referring to Esternome’s encounter with the ghost of Ninon after she had died during an earthquake. Since Ninon was possibly not given a proper burial, she was resurrected and began to haunt Esternome. However, she meets with him as a spirit rather than in her physical body. Her appearance is interesting because her spirit seemed to become a combination of the revenant and reincarnated versions of zombies. Marie-Sophie’s use of “undulating” and “oozing” suggests that Ninon’s movements were not natural and her appearance was not human. Ninon seems to have lost a part of what makes her human, and it could be due to the fact that she perished in the earthquake that had occurred at the time. Along with that, her appearance in Esternome’s dream may also be due to their last conversation ending on a sour note; therefore, she is tied to him in order to settle their dispute. This encounter could be interpreted as a message to ensure that people resolve their conflicts so that they do not come back to haunt them.
Because Esternome never settled his last conversation with Ninon, this encounter with her forever haunts him. Marie-Sophie states that “Ninon’s zombie still burned in his brain. For many months, if not years, he walked around this new City as if beneath a moonless night” (162). Ninon had effectively turned Esternome into a zombie, for his mind had become lost. He began to walk aimlessly without a purpose, and effectively lost himself, which is a great explanation as to how zombies really do come alive in the real world. Yeates provides an example of how real life zombies acted while roaming the Earth. He says, “They were in truth like the eyes of a dead man, not blind, but staring, unfocused, unseeing…It was vacant, as if there was nothing behind it. It seemed not only expressionless, but incapable of expression” (Yeates 526). This description is similar to how Esternome has lost himself after seeing Ninon’s spirit. He forever stairs into the night sky and wanders like a mindless, purposeless zombie. In Esternome’s transition into a zombie-like state, he has effectively become a enslaved by his past mistakes, and all he can do is dwell on them while he looks up at the sky.
Works Cited
Chamoiseau, Patrick. Texaco. Trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis & Val Vinokurov. NY: Vintage 1997
Kuiken, Vesna. “Foreign before ‘The Foreigner’: Caribbean Fetishes, Zombi, and Jewett’s Conjure Aesthetics.” Arizona Quarterly: A Journal of American Literature, Culture, and Theory, vol. 74, no. 4, 2018, pp.115-144.
Rath, Gudrun. “Zombie History: The Undead In Translation.” The Dark Side of Translation, Edited by Federico Italiano, 2020 pp.144-160. DOI: 10.4324/9780429321528-8.
Yeates, Robert. “Yeates 515 F Zombies the Unshriven on the Loose Dead : African and Caribbean Religious Heritage in Toni Morrison’s BELOVED”, The Johns Hopkins University Press, vol. 61, no. 3, 2015, pp. 515-537.
Editorial Collective
Jared Christopher, Georgia Litteken, Olivia Scott
